1901

Emil von Behring

Germany

work on serum therapy

1902

Sir Ronald Ross

U.K.

discovery of how malaria enters an organism

1903

Niels Ryberg Finsen

Denmark

treatment of skin diseases with light

1904

Ivan Pavlov

Russia

work on the physiology of digestion

1905

Robert Koch

Germany

tuberculosis research

1906

Camillo Golgi

Italy

work on the structure of the nervous system

Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Spain

work on the structure of the nervous system

1907

Alphonse Laveran

France

discovery of the role of protozoans in diseases

1908

Paul Ehrlich

Germany

work on immunity

Élie Metchnikoff

Russia

work on immunity

1909

Emil Theodor Kocher

Switzerland

physiology, pathology, and surgery of the thyroid gland

1910

Albrecht Kossel

Germany

researches in cellular chemistry

1911

Allvar Gullstrand

Sweden

work on dioptrics of the eye

1912

Alexis Carrel

France

work on vascular suture; transplantation of organs

1913

Charles Richet

France

work on anaphylaxis

1914

Robert Bárány

Austria-Hungary

work on vestibular apparatus

1919

Jules Bordet

Belgium

work on immunity factors in blood serum

1920

August Krogh

Denmark

discovery of the capillary motor-regulating mechanism

1922

A.V. Hill

U.K.

discoveries concerning heat production in muscles

Otto Meyerhof

Germany

work on metabolism of lactic acid in muscles

1923

Sir Frederick Grant Banting

Canada

discovery of insulin

J.J.R. Macleod

U.K.

discovery of insulin

1924

Willem Einthoven

Netherlands

discovery of electrocardiogram mechanism

1926

Johannes Fibiger

Denmark

contributions to cancer research

1927

Julius Wagner-Jauregg

Austria

work on malaria inoculation in dementia paralytica

1928

Charles-Jules-Henri Nicolle

France

work on typhus

1929

Christiaan Eijkman

Netherlands

discovery of the antineuritic vitamin

Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins

U.K.

discovery of growth-stimulating vitamins

1930

Karl Landsteiner

U.S.

discovery of human blood groups

1931

Otto Warburg

Germany

discovery of the nature and action of the respiratory enzyme

1932

Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian

U.K.

discoveries regarding function of neurons

Sir Charles Scott Sherrington

U.K.

discoveries regarding function of neurons

1933

Thomas Hunt Morgan

U.S.

heredity transmission functions of chromosomes

1934

George Richards Minot

U.S.

discoveries concerning liver treatment for anemia

William P. Murphy

U.S.

discoveries concerning liver treatment for anemia

George H. Whipple

U.S.

discoveries concerning liver treatment for anemia

1935

Hans Spemann

Germany

organizer effect in embryos

1936

Sir Henry Dale

U.K.

work on chemical transmission of nerve impulses

Otto Loewi

Germany

work on chemical transmission of nerve impulses

1937

Albert Szent-Györgyi

Hungary

work on biological combustion

1938

Corneille Heymans

Belgium

discovery of the role of sinus and aortic mechanisms in respiration regulation

1939

Gerhard Domagk (declined)

Germany

antibacterial effect of Prontosil

1943

Henrik Dam

Denmark

discovery of vitamin K

Edward Adelbert Doisy

U.S.

discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K

1944

Joseph Erlanger

U.S.

researches on differentiated functions of nerve fibres

Herbert Spencer Gasser

U.S.

researches on differentiated functions of nerve fibres

1945

Sir Ernst Boris Chain

U.K.

discovery of penicillin and its curative value

Sir Alexander Fleming

U.K.

discovery of penicillin and its curative value

Howard Walter Florey, Baron Florey

Australia

discovery of penicillin and its curative value

1946

Hermann Joseph Muller

U.S.

production of mutations by X-radiation

1947

Carl and Gerty Cori

U.S.

discovery of how glycogen is catalytically converted

Bernardo Alberto Houssay

Argentina

pituitary hormone function in sugar metabolism

1948

Paul Hermann Müller

Switzerland

properties of DDT

1949

António Egas Moniz

Portugal

therapeutic value of leucotomy in psychoses

Walter Rudolf Hess

Switzerland

discovery of functions of the interbrain

1950

Philip Showalter Hench

U.S.

research on adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological effects

Edward Calvin Kendall

U.S.

research on adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological effects

Tadeus Reichstein

Switzerland

research on adrenal cortex hormones, their structure and biological effects

1951

Max Theiler

South Africa

yellow fever discoveries

1952

Selman Abraham Waksman

U.S.

discovery of streptomycin

1953

Sir Hans Adolf Krebs

U.K.

discovery of the citric acid cycle in metabolism of carbohydrates

Fritz Albert Lipmann

U.S.

discovery of coenzyme A in metabolism of carbohydrates

1954

John Franklin Enders

U.S.

cultivation of the poliomyelitis virus in tissue cultures

Frederick Chapman Robbins

U.S.

cultivation of the poliomyelitis virus in tissue cultures

Thomas H. Weller

U.S.

cultivation of the poliomyelitis virus in tissue cultures

1955

Axel Hugo Teodor Theorell

Sweden

nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes

1956

André F. Cournand

U.S.

discoveries concerning heart catheterization and circulatory changes

Werner Forssmann

West Germany

discoveries concerning heart catheterization and circulatory changes

Dickinson Woodruff Richards

U.S.

discoveries concerning heart catheterization and circulatory changes

1957

Daniel Bovet

Italy

production of synthetic curare

1958

George Wells Beadle

U.S.

genetic regulation of chemical processes

Joshua Lederberg

U.S.

genetic recombination

Edward L. Tatum

U.S.

genetic regulation of chemical processes

1959

Arthur Kornberg

U.S.

work on producing nucleic acids artificially

Severo Ochoa

U.S.

work on producing nucleic acids artificially

1960

Sir Macfarlane Burnet

Australia

acquired immunity to tissue transplants

Sir Peter B. Medawar

U.K.

acquired immunity to tissue transplants

1961

Georg von Békésy

U.S.

functions of the inner ear

1962

Francis Harry Compton Crick

U.K.

discoveries concerning the molecular structure of DNA

James Dewey Watson

U.S.

discoveries concerning the molecular structure of DNA

Maurice Wilkins

U.K.

discoveries concerning the molecular structure of DNA

1963

Sir John Carew Eccles

Australia

study of the transmission of impulses along a nerve fibre

Sir Alan Hodgkin

U.K.

study of the transmission of impulses along a nerve fibre

Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley

U.K.

study of the transmission of impulses along a nerve fibre

1964

Konrad Bloch

U.S.

discoveries concerning cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism

Feodor Lynen

West Germany

discoveries concerning cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism

1965

François Jacob

France

discoveries concerning regulatory activities of body cells

André Lwoff

France

discoveries concerning regulatory activities of body cells

Jacques Monod

France

discoveries concerning regulatory activities of body cells

1966

Charles B. Huggins

U.S.

research on causes and treatment of cancer

Peyton Rous

U.S.

research on causes and treatment of cancer

1967

Ragnar Arthur Granit

Sweden

discoveries about chemical and physiological visual processes in the eye

Haldan Keffer Hartline

U.S.

discoveries about chemical and physiological visual processes in the eye

George Wald

U.S.

discoveries about chemical and physiological visual processes in the eye

1968

Robert William Holley

U.S.

deciphering the genetic code

Har Gobind Khorana

U.S.

deciphering the genetic code

Marshall Warren Nirenberg

U.S.

deciphering the genetic code

1969

Max Delbrück

U.S.

research and discoveries concerning viruses and viral diseases

A.D. Hershey

U.S.

research and discoveries concerning viruses and viral diseases

Salvador Luria

U.S.

research and discoveries concerning viruses and viral diseases

1970

Julius Axelrod

U.S.

discoveries concerning the chemistry of nerve impulse transmission

Ulf von Euler

Sweden

discoveries concerning the chemistry of nerve impulse transmission

Sir Bernard Katz

U.K.

discoveries concerning the chemistry of nerve impulse transmission

1971

Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.

U.S.

action of hormones

1972

Gerald Maurice Edelman

U.S.

research on the chemical structure of antibodies

Rodney Robert Porter

U.K.

research on the chemical structure of antibodies

1973

Karl von Frisch

Austria

discoveries in animal behaviour patterns

Konrad Lorenz

Austria

discoveries in animal behaviour patterns

Nikolaas Tinbergen

U.K.

discoveries in animal behaviour patterns

1974

Albert Claude

U.S.

research on structural and functional organization of cells

Christian René de Duve

Belgium

research on structural and functional organization of cells

George E. Palade

U.S.

research on structural and functional organization of cells

1975

David Baltimore

U.S.

interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell

Renato Dulbecco

U.S.

interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell

Howard Martin Temin

U.S.

interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell

1976

Baruch S. Blumberg

U.S.

studies of the origin and spread of infectious diseases

D. Carleton Gajdusek

U.S.

studies of the origin and spread of infectious diseases

1977

Roger Charles Louis Guillemin

U.S.

research on pituitary hormones

Andrew Victor Schally

U.S.

research on pituitary hormones

Rosalyn S. Yalow

U.S.

development of radioimmunoassay

1978

Werner Arber

Switzerland

discovery and application of enzymes that fragment DNA

Daniel Nathans

U.S.

discovery and application of enzymes that fragment DNA

Hamilton Othanel Smith

U.S.

discovery and application of enzymes that fragment DNA

1979

Allan MacLeod Cormack

U.S.

development of the CAT scan

Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield

U.K.

development of the CAT scan

1980

Baruj Benacerraf

U.S.

investigations of genetic control of the response of the immune system to foreign substances

Jean-Baptiste-Gabriel-Joachim Dausset

France

investigations of genetic control of the response of the immune system to foreign substances

George Davis Snell

U.S.

investigations of genetic control of the response of the immune system to foreign substances

1981

David Hunter Hubel

U.S.

processing of visual information by the brain

Roger Wolcott Sperry

U.S.

functions of the cerebral hemispheres

Torsten Nils Wiesel

Sweden

processing of visual information by the brain

1982

Sune K. Bergström

Sweden

biochemistry and physiology of prostaglandins

Bengt Ingemar Samuelsson

Sweden

biochemistry and physiology of prostaglandins

John Robert Vane

U.K.

biochemistry and physiology of prostaglandins

1983

Barbara McClintock

U.S.

discovery of mobile plant genes that affect heredity

1984

Niels K. Jerne

U.K.-Denmark

theory and development of a technique for producing monoclonal antibodies

Georges J.F. Köhler

West Germany

theory and development of a technique for producing monoclonal antibodies

César Milstein

Argentina

theory and development of a technique for producing monoclonal antibodies

1985

Michael S. Brown

U.S.

discovery of cell receptors relating to cholesterol metabolism

Joseph L. Goldstein

U.S.

discovery of cell receptors relating to cholesterol metabolism

1986

Stanley Cohen

U.S.

discovery of chemical agents that help regulate the growth of cells

Rita Levi-Montalcini

Italy

discovery of chemical agents that help regulate the growth of cells

1987

Tonegawa Susumu

Japan

study of genetic aspects of antibodies

1988

Sir James Black

U.K.

development of new classes of drugs for combating disease

Gertrude Belle Elion

U.S.

development of new classes of drugs for combating disease

George Herbert Hitchings

U.S.

development of new classes of drugs for combating disease

1989

J. Michael Bishop

U.S.

study of cancer-causing genes (oncogenes)

Harold Varmus

U.S.

study of cancer-causing genes (oncogenes)

1990

Joseph E. Murray

U.S.

development of kidney and bone marrow transplants

E. Donnall Thomas

U.S.

development of kidney and bone marrow transplants

1991

Erwin Neher

Germany

discovery of how cells communicate, as related to diseases

Bert Sakmann

Germany

discovery of how cells communicate, as related to diseases

1992

Edmond H. Fischer

U.S.

discovery of the class of enzymes called protein kinases

Edwin Gerhard Krebs

U.S.

discovery of the class of enzymes called protein kinases

1993

Richard J. Roberts

U.K.

discovery of "split," or interrupted, genetic structure

Phillip A. Sharp

U.S.

discovery of "split," or interrupted, genetic structure

1994

Alfred G. Gilman

U.S.

discovery of cell signalers called G-proteins

Martin Rodbell

U.S.

discovery of cell signalers called G-proteins

1995

Edward B. Lewis

U.S.

identification of genes that control the body's early structural development

Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard

Germany

identification of genes that control the body's early structural development

Eric F. Wieschaus

U.S.

identification of genes that control the body's early structural development

1996

Peter C. Doherty

Australia

discovery of how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells

Rolf M. Zinkernagel

Switzerland

discovery of how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells

1997

Stanley B. Prusiner

U.S.

discovery of the prion, a type of disease-causing protein

1998

Robert F. Furchgott

U.S.

discovery that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system

Louis J. Ignarro

U.S.

discovery that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system

Ferid Murad

U.S.

discovery that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system

1999

Günter Blobel

U.S.

discovery that proteins have signals governing cellular organization

2000

Arvid Carlsson

Sweden

discovery of how signals are transmitted between nerve cells in the brain

Paul Greengard

U.S.

discovery of how signals are transmitted between nerve cells in the brain

Eric Kandel

U.S.

discovery of how signals are transmitted between nerve cells in the brain

2001

Leland H. Hartwell

U.S.

discovery of key regulators of the cell cycle

R. Timothy Hunt

U.K.

discovery of key regulators of the cell cycle

Sir Paul M. Nurse

U.K.

discovery of key regulators of the cell cycle

2002

Sydney Brenner

U.K.

discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death (apoptosis)

H. Robert Horvitz

U.S.

discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death (apoptosis)

John E. Sulston

U.K.

discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death (apoptosis)

2003

Paul Lauterbur

U.S.

development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Sir Peter Mansfield

U.K.

development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

2004

Richard Axel

U.S.

discovery of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system

Linda B. Buck

U.S.

discovery of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system

2005

Barry J. Marshall

Australia

discovery of bacteria's role in peptic ulcer disease

J. Robin Warren

Australia

discovery of bacteria's role in peptic ulcer disease

2006

Andrew Z. Fire

U.S.

discovery of RNA interference—gene silencing by double-stranded RNA

Craig C. Mello

U.S.

discovery of RNA interference—gene silencing by double-stranded RNA

2007

Mario R. Capecchi

U.S.

discovery of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells

Sir Martin J. Evans

U.K.

discovery of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells

Oliver Smithies

U.S.

discovery of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells

2008

Françoise Barré-Sinoussi

France

discovery of human immunodeficiency virus

Luc Montagnier

France

discovery of human immunodeficiency virus

Harald zur Hausen

Germany

discovery of human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer

2009

Elizabeth H. Blackburn

U.S.

discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase

Carol W. Greider

U.S.

discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase

Jack W. Szostak

U.S.

discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase

2010

Robert Edwards

U.K.

development of in vitro fertilization

2011

Bruce A. Beutler

U.S.

discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity

Jules A. Hoffmann

Luxembourg/France

discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity

Ralph M. Steinman

Canada

discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity

2012

Sir John Bertrand Gurdon

U.K.

discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent

Shinya Yamanaka

Japan

discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent

2013

James E. Rothman

U.S.

discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in cells

Randy W. Schekman

U.S.

discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in cells

Thomas C. Südhof

Germany/U.S.

discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in cells

2014

Edvard I. Moser

Norway

discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain

May-Britt Moser

Norway

discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain

John O'Keefe

U.S./U.K.

discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain

2015

William C. Campbell

Ireland

discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites

Ōmura Satoshi

Japan

discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites

Tu Youyou

China

discoveries concerning a novel therapy against malaria

2016

Yoshinori Ohsumi

Japan

discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy

2017

Jeffrey C. Hall

U.S.

discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm

Michael Rosbash

U.S.

discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm

Michael W. Young

U.S.

discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm

2018

James P. Allison

U.S.

discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation

Honjo Tasuku

Japan

discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation

2019

William G. Kaelin, Jr.

U.S.

discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability

Peter J. Ratcliffe

U.K.

discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability

Gregg L. Semenza

U.S.

discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability

2020

Harvey J. Alter

U.S.

discovery of hepatitis C virus

Michael Houghton

U.K.

discovery of hepatitis C virus

Charles M. Rice

U.S.

discovery of hepatitis C virus

2021

David Julius

U.S.

discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch

Ardem Patapoutian

Leb./U.S.

discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch

2022

Svante Pääbo

Sweden

discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution

2023

Katalin Karikó

Hungary/U.S.

discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19

Drew Weissman

U.S.

discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19

2024

Victor Ambros

U.S.

discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

Gary Ruvkun

U.S.

discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation